THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN CURTIS COAST: AN OVERVIEW

Since 1993 archaeological surveys and excavations have been undertaken on the southern Curtis Coast as the coastal component of the Gooreng Gooreng Cultural Heritage Project. This paper briefly outlines the physical environment of the study region including geology, vegetation and fauna communities before presenting the preliminary results of archaeological surveys and excavations. These initial results suggest that the region has an extensive mid-to-late Holocene archaeological record that has the potential to contribute to understandings of changes in late Holocene Aboriginal societies in Central Queensland.


Introduction
The southern Curtis Coast area was selected as a coastal focus for Gooreng Gooreng Cultural Heritage Project preliminary archaeological investigations for five main reasons: (1) previous studies (Burke 1993;Godwin 1990;Rowland 1987) had indicated the considerable archaeological potential of the region; (2) the region included a variety of coastal zones such as open beaches, estuaries and embayments not typical of the coast to the immediate south or north; (3) until recently the region has not been subject to any major coastal landscape-altering development, suggesting the probability of low-level site disturbance; (4) the area includes a high concentration of National Parks and other protected areas facilitating access; and, (5) the general region is recognised as a prime area for heavy industrial, residential and tourist growth where cultural heritage data are urgently required for the development of effective management plans (Lilley and Ulm 1995).

Physical Setting
The southern Curtis Coast study area is located on the central coast of Queensland, just south of the Tropic of Capricorn.The study area extends from Wreck Rock in the Deepwater Section of Eurimbula National Park in the south to Richards Point in the Rodds Peninsula Section of Eurimbula National Park in the north and from the coast to Miriam Vale and Seven Mile Creek in the west (Figure 1).The study region covers a total land area of about 1,200km 2 , with a high water level shoreline length of approximately 450km.The study area is located c.70km northwest of Bundaberg and c.20km southeast of Gladstone, between latitudes 2420' and 2358' south and longitudes 15130' and 15157' east.

Geology and Geomorphology
The southern Curtis Coast comprises a relatively restricted range of rock types and landforms dating from the Triassic period of more than 160 million years ago, to the very much more recent estaurine and beach ridge deposits dating to the last 6,000 years (QDEH 1994:33).The basal geology of all but the extreme west of the study area is dominated by rhyolites and granites assigned to the Agnes Water Volcanics formation of the Toogoolawah Group dating to 235-213 million years ago (Ellis and Whitaker 1976;Stevens 1968).Bustard Head and Rodds Peninsula are composed of unnamed granites of Triassic age.Although the region is punctuated by rocky headlands, the study area is characterised as a depositional coastline with low north-northwest trending Holocene beach ridges and swales oriented roughly parallel to the modern coastline, trailing northwards from the northern side of almost every estuary of note (Hopley 1985:76-77).Beach ridges and sand masses consist of fine-grained quartz sands and dispersed heavy mineral sands including rutile, ilmenite and zircon (Connah 1961).
The coast in the study area is open to full oceanic conditions, which has significantly impacted upon coastal sedimentation and erosion regimes.This situation is relatively unusual on the Queensland coast, as to the south (with the exception of Cooloola) the mainland coast is protected by Fraser, Moreton, and North and South Stradbroke Islands, and to the north by the Great Barrier Reef.
One of the primary issues in evaluating the regional archaeological record is consideration of palaeoenvironmental factors, particularly the potential effects of sea-level change and erosion on site survival and visibility.Accumulating geomorphological evidence suggests that there may have been minor variations in sea-level along the eastern Australian coast since 6,000 BP.Larcombe et al. (1995) have recently presented a model of episodic post-glacial sea-level rise based on a detailed study of radiocarbon dates from the central Great Barrier Reef shelf (between Hayman Island and Cape Tribulation) for the last c.12,000 years.On this basis, they identify a peak in sea-level at c.8,500 BP at c.11m, a regression at c.8,200 BP at 17m, followed by a rapid rise to c.5m at c.7,800 BP.Sea-level remained relatively stable until c.6,800 BP before a rise to a short stillstand at 2m at c.6,000 BP and then to the Holocene stillstand of +1.65m at c.5,500 BP until c.3,700 BP, when sea-levels dropped to approximately modern values.This model contrasts with earlier sea-level curves for northeastern Australia, which have suggested stabilization at current levels at 6,000 ± 500 BP (e.g.Belperio 1979;Hopley 1983;Lambeck and Nakada 1990;Thom and Roy 1983).
This model of sea-level change has significant ramifications for understanding the archaeology of the study area, as much of the land within 2km of the present coastline exhibits very low elevation, interspersed with large freshwater swamps and wetlands and extensive estuarine systems.Field surveys and examination of aerial photographs revealed a regular system of parallel transgressive beach ridges extending over much of the study area (particularly between Round Hill and Falls Creeks), suggesting major transformations of the coastal landscape over time.The assignment of the majority of these changes to the late Holocene is supported by a preliminary series of four radiocarbon dates from a pollen core taken from freshwater wetlands adjoining Round Hill Creek (on the inland side of a major series of transgressive beach ridges), suggesting a basal date for swamp formation of c.3,000 years ago, consistent with recent arguments for sea-level retreat (M.Cotter, Centre for Coastal Management, Southern Cross University, pers. comm., 1999).
Taken together, this evidence suggests a very recent origin for many of the coastal landforms which are the subject of this study, including numerous tidal estuaries, extensive inter-tidal and sub-tidal mudflats, low sandy beach ridges and cheniers (Figures 2-6).

Climate
The region has a sub-tropical, maritime climate influenced by the southeast trade winds, regional topography and the moderating influences of the ocean.The region experiences occasional monsoon influences, although cyclones are more frequent features, as are the major frontal systems common in more southerly latitudes.These varied influences generate marked variability in rainfall, temperature and prevailing wind conditions on the Curtis Coast (QDEH 1994:11).
The average maximum and minimum temperatures in the region range from 28.9C and 22.8C respectively in the summer to 20.9C and 13.4C respectively in the winter (QDEH 1994:13).Regional rainfall is summer-dominated, with January and February commonly the wettest months and August and September the driest, with mean annual rainfall at the Town of Seventeen Seventy of 1,318mm (QDEH 1994:11).Major factors which influence the distribution of rainfall include topographic influences of mountain ranges, geographic influences such as the orientation of the coastline to the prevailing watersaturated winds, and occasional cyclones causing extreme rain events from November to April.

Hydrology
The Curtis Coast is transected by numerous creeks and rivers which form an extensive network of interconnected estuaries.Numerous minor seasonal tributaries drain into estuarine creeks from the low sub-coastal ranges in the west.The Munro Range, Edinburgh Mountains and Westwood Range divide the catchments of Baffle, Round Hill, Eurimbula and Middle Creeks to the south and east from Worthington and Seven Mile Creeks to the north (Olsen 1980a:4).The major influences on water movement within these tributaries are prevailing tides and weather conditions, although freshwater inflow associated with periods of high intensity rainfall can cause heavy runoff, which produces short-term fluctuations in estuary salinity and turbidity (Olsen 1980a:5).Olsen (1980a:6) notes that tidal flushing of estuaries is generally high, except for a period of depressed salinity between January and March suggesting significant terrestrial freshwater rainfall input (see also Lupton and Heidenreich 1996 for similar data for Baffle Creek).
In the south, Round Hill, Eurimbula, Middle and Pancake Creeks are generally shallow, mangrovefringed estuaries characterised by sandy bottoms merging to silt and clay in the upper reaches (Olsen 1980a:3).To the north, Rodds Harbour and Seven Mile Creek exhibit deeper channels near the mouth and extensive flats and zones of silty sand upstream with large areas of mangroves with clay pans bordering grassy or layered eucalypt forest (Olsen 1980a:3).
Tidal processes of the Curtis Coast are influenced by the presence of the southern extremities of the Great Barrier Reef, ocean floor topography and coastal geology, such as inshore islands and headlands (QDEH 1994:17).The tidal effects of estuaries also contribute to the amplification of tidal range along the Curtis Coast, with an average maximum tidal range of 2.43m at Pancake Creek in the approximate centre of the study region (QDOT 1998).Like all coastal regions, the area is subject to both wind-and storm-generated waves which modify the configuration of the shoreline.Unfortunately, only scant research into coastal erosion processes has been undertaken in the area and the effects of erosion on the representation of archaeological materials in open beach contexts is difficult to assess.Anecdotal evidence and field observations suggest that stormsurge activity exacerbates local erosion (Figure 7).

Vegetation
The ecological complexity and diversity of the study region reflects its status as part of a transitional zone between tropical and temperate provinces, with a zoogeographical boundary identified at about latitude 25 south (Endean et al. 1956;Knox 1963).This overlap generally translates into high rates of floral and faunal diversity, with representation of both tropical and temperate species.The region supports an extensive range of herblands, grasslands, heaths, scrubs and tall shrublands, and open and closed forests (QDEH 1994:45).Mixed herblands on foredunes include Ipomoea pes-caprae and Canavalia rosea.Extensive wet and dry heathlands occur on poorly-drained sandy-loam soils, comprising a number of species generally less than 2m in height, including banksia (Banksia sp.), paperbark (Melaleuca sp.), and grass trees (Xanthorrhoea sp.).Beach ridges support tall open paperbark forests, dominated by the species Melaleuca leucadendra and M. dealbata in association with cabbage-tree palm communities (Livistona australis) (QDEH 1994:48).The distribution of closed forest is limited, with a relatively restricted tall, araucarian closed-forest community found bordering Eurimbula Creek, with hoop pine Araucaria cunninghamii emergent above a notophyll vine forest (QDEH 1994:49).
Estuary systems exhibit extensive fringing vegetation communities consisting of combinations of some 13 mangrove species dominated by the grey mangrove (Avicennia marina), red mangrove (Rhizophora stylosa) and yellow mangrove (Ceriops tagal) (Dowling 1980;Olsen 1980a).Seagrass beds (dominated by Zostera capricornia) are typically found in sheltered waters where water clarity allows sufficient light penetration for photosynthesis, including Round Hill Creek, Rodds Harbour, Pancake Creek and Mort Creek (Olsen 1980b;QDEH 1994).These habitats provide important breeding and feeding grounds for prawns, crabs and fish as well as turtles, dugongs and numerous water fowl.

Fauna
The region's terrestrial fauna is diverse and includes 60 species of mammals (including bats, echidna, koala and kangaroos), 59 species of reptiles (including lizards and snakes) and 288 bird species (including shorebirds, waterbirds, seabirds and birds of prey) (QDEH 1994:59-65).Macropods include the eastern grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus), whiptail wallaby (M.parryi) and swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor).Occasional dingoes (Canis familiaris) have also been sighted in remote parts of the study region.Bird species common to these habitats include the beach thick-knee (Esacus magnirostris) and eastern curlew (Numenius madagascariensis).The terrestrial environment has been impacted by intensive logging of local areas and long-term grazing of cattle.At least one local extinction is apparent, that of the eastern bustard or plain turkey (Choriotis australis) (Growcott and Taylor 1996:25).
Common marine fauna found along the Curtis Coast include a number of whale species (including the humpback Megaptera novaeangliae), four species of dolphin, dugongs (Dugong dugong) and turtles (including loggerhead Carreta caretta and green Chelonia mydas).Rodds Harbour supports the largest dugong population along the Curtis Coast (QDEH 1994:66).As a transition zone, the area is also a wintering destination for some whales and migratory waterbirds.
A total of 148 species of fishes from 69 families is recorded for the Curtis Coast (QDEH 1994:68).A detailed study of the lower estuarine sections of Baffle Creek just to the south of the study area conducted in 1993-1994 by Lupton and Heidenreich (1996) provides useful data.The lower estuarine component of this fisheries resource assessment covered habitats similar to the coastal estuaries in the study area.Despite significantly depressed regional rainfall levels (25% under the annual average) before and during the survey period, 55 fish and nine crustacean species were recorded.The larger fish species were dominated (in order of abundance) by flat-tail mullet (Liza dussumieri), sand mullet (Myxus elongatus), whiting (Sillago ciliata, S. maculata and S. sihama), bream (Acanthopagrus australis), bluetail mullet (Valamugil seheli), sea mullet (Mugil cephalus) and garfish (including Arrhamphus sclerolepis and Hyporhamphus ardelio) (Grant 1993;Lupton and Heindenreich 1996).Commercial finfish catches for the region similarly reflect this pattern, with mullet, whiting and bream accounting for 64.1% of commercial catches (Olsen 1980a:11).Mud crabs (Scylla serrata) and sand crabs (Portunus pelagicus) are also common.
The contemporary estuarine molluscan fauna along the southern Curtis Coast is dominated by commercial oyster (Saccostrea commercialis), found in mangrove and rocky habitats, and gastropods such as hercules club shell (Pyrazus ebeninus), and members of the family Potamididae, including the mud creepers Telescopium telescopium and Terebralia sulcata (Roughley 1928;Shanco and Timmins 1975).Midden deposits are dominated by commercial oyster and the mud ark Anadara trapezia, an estuarine bivalve, although this species is very      sparse in the coastal waters of Queensland today (Chappell and Grindrod 1984:222) and is not included in estuarine inventories for the region (Shanco and Timmins 1975).Contemporary open coast molluscs are relatively depauperate, with scattered populations of milky oyster (Saccostrea amassa) on exposed rocky headlands (Olsen 1980a:11,13) and pipi (Donax deltoides) on stretches of sandy coast.

Cultural Setting
The ethnohistoric record for the Curtis Coast is generally very sparse, with considerable conflict both among documentary sources and between documentary and Aboriginal oral histories (see Clarkson et al. in prep for a detailed discussion).In one of the earliest discussions of Aboriginal lifeways in this area, Curr (1887:122, 126) used the term 'Maroonee' to describe the people occupying the coastal areas of Rodds and Bustard Bays and inland to the Many Peaks Range.Mathew (1914) also placed 'Meerooni' in this area.Brasch (1975) suggested that a dialect of Gooreng Gooreng labelled 'Guweng' occurred in this same geographical area.Tindale (1974) termed this group 'Goeng' (also listing Meerooni, Gurang Gurang and Yungkong), and suggested it covered an area from Miriam Vale and south to the mouth of Baffle Creek.Significantly, Williams (1981:62) was not certain about including the area fringing Bustard Bay within Gooreng Gooreng country, despite extensive interviews with Aboriginal people from the study area.Clarkson et al. (in prep.)suggest that as the various terms refer to country today identified with Gooreng Gooreng speakers (see also Curr's 1887 language list for the Meerooni of Baffle Creek where 'no'= 'Gooraong'), they are unlikely to refer to the name of a language per se, but may be that of a dialect group or subgroup of Gooreng Gooreng (Burke 1993:8).In contemporary discourses, the study area is considered to be broadly part of the country of Gooreng Gooreng people (Clarkson et al. in prep.).
The very few documentary sources which relate to the immediate southern Curtis Coast study area span from Bank's observation on 23 May 1770 of two Aboriginal men walking along the beach just south of Bustard Bay (Beaglehole 1963:65).The following day, a party from the Endeavour went ashore at Bustard Bay to inspect the country, noting "innumerable Oysters, Hammer oysters and many more sorts" and a recently-vacated occupation site: Those who stayd on board the ship saw about 20 of the natives, who came down abreast of the ship and stood upon the beach for some time looking at her, after which they went into the woods; we on shore saw none.Many large fires were made at a distance from us where probably the people were.One small one was in our neighbourhood, to this we went; it was burning when we came to it, but the people were gone; near it was left several vessels of bark which we conceivd were intended for water buckets, several shells and fish bones, the remainder I suppose of their last meal.Near the fires, for there were 6 or 7 small ones, were as many peices of soft bark of about the length and breadth of a man: these we supposd to be their beds: on the windward side of the fires was a small shade about a foot high made of bark likewise.The whole was in a thicket of close trees, defended by them from the wind; whether it was realy or not the place of their abode we can only guess.We saw no signs of a house or any thing like the ruins of an old one, and from the ground being much trod we concluded that they had for some time remaind in that place (Beaglehole 1963:67).
Other members of the landing party also reported the tail of a land animal at the camp to those that remained on the ship (Pickersgill in Bladen 1892:218).
Subsequent sources (mainly from ships and exploratory vessels) make passing references to sightings of Aboriginal people, material culture or smoke from campfires in the general region (e.g.Flinders 1814; Oxley 1825).Flinders (1814:15-16) in August 1802 noted bark canoes, turtle remains and scoop nets at the southern end of Curtis Island to the north.In 1846, MacGillivray (1852:57) made the following observations while visiting Port Curtis: During our stay at Port Curtis, we had no intercourse whatever with the natives, although anxious to establish friendly communication.With the aid of the spyglass, we could occasionally make out a few, chiefly women, collecting shell-fish on the mud flats of the main land, and their fires were daily seen in every direction.
Although there have been suggestions of patterns of coastal transhumance related to water shortages (e.g.Oxley 1825), early historical sources document the presence of Aboriginal populations on the coast throughout the year (Burke 1993;Clarkson et al. in prep.) and permanent water stored in coastal sandmasses appears to have been perennially available (Buchanan 1999).
The most recent ethnohistoric documentary account for the immediate study area is from October 1846, when Colonel George Barney on board the Cornubia encountered Aborigines close to their camp while searching the southern entrance of Bustard Bay for freshwater with which to fill the ship's casks.Barney was shown a small freshwater soak in dense scrub about 100m from the base of Round Hill Head (McDonald 1988:10).Colonial impact, notably in the form of frontier violence and introduced diseases, precipitated the demographic collapse of local Aboriginal social groups and virtual abandonment of the near-coastal landscape by the late nineteenth-century.For the Tooloola of the Gladstone area to the immediate north, Curr (1887) estimated that by 1882 a pre-European population of 700 had been reduced to 43.During the 1850s, the Native Mounted Police were active in the region and several massacres are known to have occurred in the Miriam Vale area (Clarkson et al. in prep).In the main, by the late nineteenthcentury Aboriginal populations in the region coalesced into fringe camps at major European townships such as Miriam Vale in the west and Gladstone in the north (e.g.Roth 1898).Although Aboriginal people may have occasionally visited the area after the 1920s from local Aboriginal population centres such as Berajondo and Gladstone, the entire region was effectively depopulated by the removal of Aboriginal people to reserves and missions (particularly Barambah, Woorabinda and Bogimbah) under the provisions of the Aborigines Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897 (Blake 1991;Evans 1991).

Archaeological Surveys and Excavations Previous Research
Prior to the 1990s, knowledge of the archaeological record of the study region was extremely limited.In fact, prior to 1993 only eight sites were recorded on the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency site index for the study area.In 1978, a quarry site and axe grinding grooves were recorded on the coast just south of Agnes Water and in 1986 two shell middens were recorded by Neal (1986) on the west bank of Seven Mile Creek as part of an environmental impact assessment.Also in 1986, Rowland (1987) conducted a "broad cursory investigation" of the study area as part of general surveys of the coast between Elliott Heads and Turkey Beach.Rowland (1987:17) noted that "substantial middens are rare", sites are located "either atop rocky headlands or in sheltered estuaries", and that "smaller scatters of shells are located along open beaches".He (1987:17) concluded that: Whether this is a true reflection of Aboriginal settlement patterns in the area or an expression of geomorphological factors affecting preservation and visibility is a problem still to be resolved.Certainly the extent of erosion along the open coastal dune systems of the area would suggest that the loss of sites may be an important factor affecting the above pattern.Godwin (1990) located an extensive midden on the west bank of Round Hill Creek during limited surveys of Eurimbula National Park (later registered as KE:A49-KE:A54).In 1993, Burke (1993) conducted selective systematic archaeological surveys in the region as part of a broad cultural heritage assessment between Agnes Water in the south and Raglan Creek in the north and up to 1km inland from the mainland coast.In the southern Curtis Coast study area, Burke (1993) documented 93 sites, including shell middens (n=77), stone artefact scatters (n=12), quarries (n=2), stone-walled fishtraps (n=1) and scarred trees (n=1).Overall, Burke (1993) found that sites were most commonly located on level or gently inclined sand dune surfaces in low-energy estuarine environments.

Gooreng Gooreng Cultural Heritage Project
Archaeological investigations conducted under the auspices of the Gooreng Gooreng Cultural Heritage Project commenced on the southern Curtis Coast in 1993, augmented by a number of cultural heritage impact studies undertaken by the authors (Lilley 1994(Lilley , 1995)).Together these investigations were designed to expand the results of earlier, more limited or project-specific surveys discussed above.Of particular interest were questions concerning the antiquity of human occupation in the coastal region and whether the concentration of sites in estuaries and near absence of material on ocean beaches noted by Rowland (1987) reflected past Aboriginal behaviour, recent geological processes or patterns of archaeological research.Up to the end of 1997, a total of 56 days of fieldwork (survey and excavation) had been undertaken on the southern Curtis Coast.
On the coast, systematic site surveys undertaken as transects were conducted in all major environmental zones including open beaches and rocky headlands, marine estuary systems, swamp and wetland margins, and the coastal ranges.To date, however, the majority of investigations have focused on near-coastal landscapes.The entire open coastline between Wreck Rock and Richards Point has been systematically surveyed as have the lower estuarine margins of Round Hill, Eurimbula, Middle, Jenny Lind, Pancake, Falls and Mort Creeks (Figure 1).Inland areas have proven more difficult to access owing to restricted access to freehold land, a lack of visibility and an absence of access tracks in many areas.The whole of Middle Island was intensively surveyed by Lilley (1994) using a grid of drilling-lines graded across the island for mineral sand exploration.Some small transects have also been undertaken on the northeast margin of a large swamp which dominates the western half of the Deepwater Section of Eurimbula National Park and parts of Round Hill National Park.Poor visibility away from coast and estuary margins is considered to be a major impediment to site detection (see also Burke 1993:23, 32-33).Survey crews were deployed so as to sample most effectively the different micro-environments that were encountered.The usual strategy involved walking through the subject area in line-abreast at one visual distance separation between walkers and up to 50m in total width, focusing on areas of high groundsurface visibility.In some areas, the crew was split into two teams to examine different zones, such as foredunes and backdunes, simultaneously.While field crews took advantage of every opportunity to examine soil profiles in road cuttings, creek banks and the like, no excavation, augering or other subsurface testing was undertaken during the survey phase of the study (cf.Burke 1993:23-24).Site locations were established with the use of topographic maps, aerial photographs and Global Positioning System (GPS) readings.

Survey Results
A major complication in effectively conducting and evaluating archaeological survey data from the region was a lack of access to the earlier site recordings made by Burke (1993) held by the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency.Although abbreviated survey results are available in Burke's (1993) report, an absence of detailed site descriptions and inconsistencies in location data prevented accurate field identification of previously recorded sites.These details have recently been obtained under the provisions of the Freedom of Information Act 1992.As a result of these problems, some of the sites reported by Lilley et al. (1997:Table 2) had already been recorded by Burke (1993).Further confusion arose as some of the pre-allocated State site numbers assigned to Burke had already been allocated to other sites by the time they came to be registered (M.Carter, Queensland Environmental Protection Agency, pers. comm., 1999) and many of Burke's sites were subsequently conflated on the basis of proximity when entered onto the database (Burke's original 93 sites from this area were registered as only 51 sites).Additionally, Burke (1993:Appendix 5) assigned pre-allocated site numbers to more than one site on a number of occasions (KE:A37-KE:A40, KE:A44-KE:A46 in Appendix 5), which was not addressed during the registration process.It should be noted that most of the site numbers listed in QDEH (1994:Appendix XVI) were among Burke's (1993) pre-allocated site numbers, which were superceded when registered by the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency.To simplify the multiple site designations, Appendix B presents a key which links actually-registered sites to Burke's (1993) site field numbers and pre-allocated site designations, as well as those assigned by other researchers, including those employed by the Gooreng Gooreng Cultural Heritage Project.
Appendix A is an attempt to synthesize the survey data for the area included in Rowland (1987), Burke (1993), Lilley et al. (1997) and the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency site database (obtained under the Freedom of Information Act, 1992).This task was complicated by variations in site definitions and recording strategies combined with problems in site provenience data related primarily to inadequate location data.For example, the site Lilley et al. (1997) and Ulm et al. (this volume) refer to as Eurimbula Site 1 (SCC43) is registered as six separate sites on the Queensland Environmental Protection Agency site database (KE:A49-KE:A54), which is a secondary conflation of Burke's (1993) original 20 separate sites.
Clearly, these variations would render as spurious any absolute quantitative comparisons between the sites presented in Appendix A. The general descriptions of the nature of observed archaeological materials, however, provide a basis for broadly characterizing the archaeological record of the study region.
A total of 79 Aboriginal cultural places is listed in Appendix A, including recording details, basic location data and a brief site description.In most cases this description includes all information available for the site.Figures 1 and 8-9 show site locations.Site types include stone quarries, axe grinding grooves, shell middens (Figures 10-11), stone-walled tidal fishtraps (Figures 12-13), stone artefact scatters, scarred trees and contact period sites.Low density shell middens are clearly the most common archaeological expression of Aboriginal behaviour in the area, dominated, without exception, by mud ark (Anadara trapezia) and/or commercial oyster (Saccostrea commercialis) (see also Burke 1993:40).Stone artefacts are commonly associated with larger shell middens (Figure 14) and rocky headlands.Lithic raw materials are dominated by locally available pyroclastic rhyolite and quartz with occasional non-local silcrete and banded chert artefacts.Flaked glass artefacts also occur on the surface of two large shell midden complexes (Figure 15).Several glass artefacts exhibit clear evidence of use in plant processing activities (Ulm et al. 1999).
Coupled with the results of previous studies, these extensive surveys have revealed a consistent pattern of site location.Extensive stratified shell midden deposits with evidence of multiple occupations and diverse activities are limited exclusively to tidal estuary margins in close proximity to their mouths.Such sites have been located on the northern and southern banks of Round Hill, Middle and Pancake Creeks.All are exposed in erosion faces extending over several kilometres.Relatively small, low density surface scatters of marine shell and stone artefacts made on local materials were noted on exposed headlands, while midden deposits on the open beaches themselves were generally very limited in extent and composition and often located in deflated contexts.Beach ridges and transgressive dunes located adjacent to the modern coastline contain abundant evidence for extensive but shallow site complexes (Lilley 1994;Lilley and Ulm 1995).

Discussion of Survey Results
At this stage it is unclear how processes of erosion and progradation on the exposed coast have affected the differential preservation and visibility of sites, as has been observed elsewhere (e.g.Bird 1992;Godfrey 1989;Head 1987;Rowland 1989).Intensive surveys of the open coastline suggest an almost complete absence of cultural material on the low frontal dunes bordering the open ocean beach and a preponderance of material on the lower margins of major estuaries.That this pattern is an accurate reflection of past Aboriginal behaviours rather than an artificial pattern created by differential preservation of cultural materials by erosion of the exposed coast is supported not only by the absence of material on current coasts, but also by the absence of cultural material on particular coastal landforms.Although scatters of midden shell and stone artefacts have been recorded on numerous headlands on the exposed coast, they are very sparse compared to the abundance of material on estuary margins suggesting a qualitative pattern of settlement preference in these areas.This pattern may in part reflect patterns of resource distribution with lower creek margin sites often situated adjacent to a range of potential resource zones.Significantly, despite the proximity of large midden deposits on the lower estuaries to open beach habitats (in some cases <100m), only very occasional pipi (Donax deltoides) valves have been observed or recovered from excavated deposits.Only a single site in the region, the Middle Island Sandblow Site (KE:A67), exhibits significant quantities of this species.Donax deltoides is virtually the diagnostic signature of Aboriginal use of open coasts in southeast Queensland (e.g.Hall 1980;McNiven 1990McNiven , 1998)).This pattern suggests that either this species was consumed and discarded at locations other than those identified, and which have been obscured or destroyed by erosional processes, or that the open coast was not a primary focus of resource extraction in this region.McNiven (1985McNiven ( , 1989) identified a similar pattern at sites at the mouth of the Maroochy River and on the Inskip Point peninsula at Cooloola.He suggests that in southeast Queensland "major ocean beach shellfish (i.e.pipi) exploitation only occurred in contexts far removed from estuarine environments" (McNiven 1989:47), arguing that estuarine environments were preferentially exploited by people over the open beach owing to a greater productivity and diversity of resources in estuaries.

Excavation Summary
Two of the largest complexes of shell midden deposits in the area have been subject to limited test excavation (Figures 8 and 9): the Mort Creek Site Complex (KE:A41) on the west bank of Mort Creek at the northern end of Rodds Peninsula (Carter 1997;Carter et al. this volume;Lilley et al. 1996) and Eurimbula Site 1 (KE:A49-KE:A54) on the west bank of Round Hill Creek (Lilley et al. 1996;Ulm et al. this volume).Brief summaries of the excavations are presented below.

Mort Creek Site Complex
The Mort Creek Site Complex (KE:A41) is located on the west bank of Mort Creek on the west coast of Rodds Peninsula (Figure 8).The site consists of extensive areas of natural shell deposits (cheniers), cultural shell midden deposits and a stone-walled tidal fishtrap (Figures 3,12).Three 50cm x 50cm test pits were excavated in different areas of the site in January 1995 in an attempt to distinguish areas of non-cultural deposit, such as cheniers, from shell middens.The excavation at 'White Patch' revealed a densely packed and highly fragmented shell deposit attributed to chenier development.It is characterized by a large range of species, including micro-molluscs.'The Granites' excavation revealed cultural shell midden deposits, including stone artefacts and burnt fish bone, overlying a chenier deposit resting on microgranite bedrock.The excavation at 'A7' revealed more complex sediments, suggesting the interfingering of cultural and natural shell deposits.
Seven radiocarbon dates have been obtained for the site (Appendix C).The dates from the unequivocal cultural deposits at 'The Granites' suggest Aboriginal occupation before 2,300 cal BP (Wk-3941).Significantly, the radiocarbon dates from the chenier deposits suggest an overlap in the formation of natural and cultural shell deposits at the site.For further details see Carter et al. (this volume;also Carter 1997;Lilley et al. 1999;Lilley et al. 1996).

Eurimbula Site 1
Eurimbula Site 1 (KE:A49-KE:A54) is a large, stratified, midden complex intermittently exposed for some 2km in a steep erosion face on the west bank of Round Hill Creek (Figure 9).Three 50cm x 50cm test pits were excavated at 25m intervals along each of three transects placed perpendicular to the erosion bank.Excavation yielded a cultural assemblage dominated by shellfish remains (mud ark and oyster), with small quantities of fish bone, charcoal and stone artefacts.Densities of cultural material were found to decrease markedly with distance from the creek.
Five radiocarbon dates are available for the site, revealing an occupational sequence spanning from c.3,200 cal BP (Wk-3945) to the historical period (Appendix C).For further details see Ulm et al. (this volume;also Lilley et al. 1996;Reid 1997).

Conclusion
The overview presented in this paper is a baseline synthesis of known archaeological resources in the study area.This consolidation of data gathered by a variety of investigators will provide a starting point for field verification and further investigations.
These results confirm Aboriginal occupation of the coast in this region from at least 3,000 BP, and conforms with other dates obtained for the Queensland coast (Ulm et al. 1995;cf. Nicholson and Cane 1994).In particular, the dates are similar to the earliest dates obtained at the site of Booral in the Great Sandy Straits to the south (Bowen 1998;Frankland 1990) as well as those from the Keppel Islands just to the north (Rowland 1985(Rowland , 1992)).
The general structure of the archaeological record of the region is qualitatively similar to adjacent areas to the north (Burke 1993;Border 1994) and south (McNiven 1990(McNiven , 1998) ) which have featured in discussions of late Holocene change in Aboriginal societies on the Queensland coast (e.g.McNiven 1999; Ulm and Hall 1996).The investigation of the archaeological resources of the southern Curtis Coast therefore has the potential to contribute to discussions of such wider issues.
Extensive shell midden complex bordering Round Hill Creek and bounded in the south by Tom's Creek, an eastern tributary of Round Hill Creek.Size not accurately determined owing to heavy vegetation.Material scattered on all 4WD tracks examined in the area.Maximum depth in all these locations is 10-20cm.Predominantly mud ark and oyster, with some stone artefacts.Site complex covers a large area and probably subsumes the sites registered separately as KE:A33, KE:A62 and KE:A63.References: Burke (1993); Rowland (1987)

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.The southern Curtis Coast study area, showing all recorded archaeological sites as triangles (after Burke 1993; Davies 1994; Lilley 1994; Lilley et al. 1997; Neal 1986; Rowland 1987; Ulm 1999).Site designations are shown for sites which are not illustrated in Figures 8-9.These sites are listed in Appendix A with the prefix 'KE:'.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. General view of Bustard Bay, showing the mouth of Jenny Lind Creek in foreground, facing southeast (Photograph: S. Ulm).

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.General view of estuary systems and near-coastal ranges across Jenny Lind Creek, facing southwest (Photograph: S. Ulm).

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Freshwater wetlands adjoining the upper reaches of Round Hill Creek, facing north (Photograph: S. Ulm).

Figure 8 .
Figure 8. Northern segment of the study area showing recorded sites as triangles in the Middle Island, Rodds Peninsula and Turkey Beach areas (after Burke 1993; Lilley 1994; Lilley et al. 1997; Ulm 1999).Sites without a 'KF:' prefix are listed in Appendix A with the prefix 'KE:'.Sites listed with a 'SCC' prefix are currently unregistered sites.

Figure 9 .
Figure 9.Southern segment of the study area showing recorded sites as triangles in the Agnes Water, Round Hill Creek and Eurimbula Creek areas (after Burke 1993; Lilley et al. 1997; Rowland 1987; Ulm 1999).Sites are listed in Appendix A with the prefix 'KE:'.Sites listed with a 'SCC' prefix are currently unregistered sites.
Davies (1994)) of theRowland (1987)Hill Head headland.Isolated stone artefacts and artefact scatters located along exposed walking tracks and ridges.Two large pyroclastic rhyolite boulders near the navigation beacon at the tip of the headland exhibit a number of negative flake scars.Some oyster shell and flaking debris is scattered in surrounding crevices.Elsewhere, scattered shell fragments and stone artefacts occur, including cobble cores.References:Burke (1993);Lilley et al. (1997);Rowland (1987).Multi-component stratified shell mound (at least 16m x 10m) (c.160m 2 ) with a depth of more than 50cm, located in open woodland on a low rock terrace c.25m from Round Hill Creek.Extremely high density and spatially discrete shell deposit, dominated by mud ark, but also some oyster, stone artefacts, bone and charcoal.References:Burke (1993);Rowland (1987).Miriam Vale Homestead and Cattle Station built c.1856.Historic and contact site, located just southeast of the modern town of Miriam Vale.The Station is the centre of religious and social affiliation to country for many Aboriginal families whose association to the Miriam Vale area spanned the pastoral occupation and into the distant past.This area was the location of several massacres and conflicts between white pastoralists, Native Mounted Police and Aborigines, including a major Aboriginal attack on 12 February 1857.After the establishment of the Homestead and until the time of the attacks, local Aborigines had been employed on the station.An Aboriginal camp was situated on the south bank of House Creek adjacent to the Homestead.References:Clarkson et al. (in prep.);Davies(1994).